Modern American History

Table of Contents Introduction The Dynamics of Capital Expansion American Democratic Idealism and Imperialism The Freedom of Speech during the World War Conclusion Works Cited Introduction Two initial sentences in the introduction to the book Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq written by Stephen Kinzer state the problem and briefly consider it, â€Å"Why does a strong nation strike against a weaker one? Usually because it seeks to impose its ideology, increase its power, or gain control of valuable resources† (Kinzer 1).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Modern American History specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The statement is true, but when it goes about the United States of America, it is a rule to talk about democracy and the necessity to help Americans and other nations understand what democracy is and to implement it by all means. The modern situation in the wor ld and the latest events which made the USA interfere into the life of its country and other nations allows us to look at the issue critically and to point to the problem which exists in the contemporary world. Paying attention to the modern American history, it is possible to consider a number of specific examples when the USA tried to impose its rules (and it is necessary to state that it was rather successful in its attempts) on other countries and limit the freedoms of its citizens claiming about the importance of democracy and helping the whole world become free in its actions. Dwelling upon democracy and the desire to help Americans and other nations become free, the government of the United States of America have been providing constant interference to the private life of different nations, calling it democratic idealism, and making its citizens remain speechless contradicting to their first amendment right to free speech; the overthrow in Hawaii in 1893, the President Woodro w Wilson’s declaration of war message to congress (April, 1917), and the Espionage Act of 1917 are brightest examples of the American imperialism in the whole world. The Dynamics of Capital Expansion Considering the modern history of the USA and trying to remember the most striking events connected with the American interference into other countries, the invasion of Iraq in 2003 is remembered. However, being the most vivid case of American expansion, Iraq is not the only country where Americans tried to interfere. The USA constantly tries to implement its capital expansion on other nations. To make it clear, the main idea of capital expansion (read imperialism) should be described. Deeping into the history, Parenti in The dynamic of capital expansion states that the expansion as form of ruling was popular, e.g. Persian, Mongol, Roman, etc. empires functioned on the principle of imperialism. The development of the financial relations made it possible for the more powerful coun tries to spread capital expansion as a form of imperialism. Parenti declares that â€Å"a central imperative of capitalism is expansion† (3). The relations within the capitalist society are based on profit. To make more profit, companies should expand and increase its productivity. Having created the manufacturing in different countries, the companies have an opportunity to manage human resources in those countries and make the society act as they want.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thus, using different financial and economic leverage, a foreign country has an opportunity to interfere in the affairs of the society, even though that interference is indirect. Let us explore the situation which took place in Hawaii in 1893 with the information considered above in mind. The central event which provoked Americans and made those implement active actions is considered to be the desir e of Queen Liliuokalani to change the Constitution. The central change the queen wanted to apply was the change of vote procedure. According to the new law, only native citizens of Hawaii might have an opportunity to vote. This change would have influenced the life of all islands which created a country. Having a queen and being a separate country, Hawaii was ruled by â€Å"a few dozen American and European families† (Kinzer 9). The elite were interested in this ruling, but the natives experienced pressure and inconvenience on their own lands. The desire of the queen to change the political structure of Hawaii would mean nothing good for Americans and Europeans. But, being aware of the capital expansion as a form of imperialism, it is possible to state that Americans could not react somehow differently. America did not have the right to lose influence in Hawaii as it had already invested too much there. The USA had made too much to be defeated. Performing the role of capital imperial country, the USA provided its expansion on Hawaii by means of investing in that country, dominating its economy, culture, politics, and â€Å"integrating its productive structures into an international system of capital accumulation† (Parenti 3). Having spent too much affords and time on implementing its domination over Hawaii, the change of constitution was not included in the US plans. This would mean that the USA did not have political influence on Hawaiian life. The overthrowing of the queen with the help of American diplomat was the problem of one day. The USA, a country which cared about all peoples in the world, could not allow the nation to remain without a leader. Thus, Hawaii appeared under direct influence from the USA (Kinzer 32). The long history of these two counties was not over. Looking at Hawaii as one of the US states, it is possible to conclude that the providing capital expansion of a weaker nation, the dominant one will always win. American Democ ratic Idealism and Imperialism Considering the examples of American imperialism in the overthrow of Hawaii, Cuba, Philippines, and Nicaragua in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it is possible to state that the democratic idealism the United States of America try to apply is nothing more than American imperialism in practice.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Modern American History specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Reading President Woodrow Wilson’s, war message to congress, it is accepted as the declaration of war to Germany. This document passionately discusses how German army wants to â€Å"sink very vessel that sought to approach either the ports of Great Britain and Ireland or western coasts of Europe or any of the coasts controlled by the enemies of Germany within the Mediterranean† (Woodrow n.p.). The President of the USA dwelt much about the crime against all nations. The dis cussion was directed at the friendly relations between the USA and Germany, but the importance of their continuation due to the existing situation. It seems that the USA aims to protect all the nations from Imperial German Government. This is exactly what it does. But! This message has a phrase which may explain the overthrow of such governments as Cuba, Philippines, and Nicaragua, â€Å"Neutrality is no longer feasible or desirable where the peace of the world is involved and the freedom of its peoples, and the menace to that peace and freedom lies in the existence of autocratic governments backed by organized force which is controlled wholly by their will, not by the will of their people† (Woodrow n.p.). This was one of the main reasons of American expansion to foreign countries. Being covered by the Spanish war and the consequences of the Treaty of Paris, the USA has managed to gain control over Cuba and Philippines. Stating that this domination is only official and it is not going to interfere into its national affairs, the new Cuban Constitution created under the guidelines of a new President, made it possible for the USA to intervene into Cuban inner affairs. The amendments in this constitution gave the USA the power to rule the country. The operations in Philippines, as well as in Cuba, were a â€Å"part of a larger war† (Kinzer 70). Isn’t it exactly what Woodrow told about neutrality and the desire to maintain peace? It is all about the USA. Pointing to the peaceful operations, declaring about the highest purposes, it always persuaded its own interests. Political and economical influence, the domination in these questions on those territories is one of the main signs of imperialistic expansion. Dwelling upon democracy, the USA helped Cuba get rid of Spanish domination, but Cuba did not become free. The same had happened with Philippines and Nicaragua. Stating that one of the main desires of the USA in the Spanish-American war was t o create the conditions for implementing democracy in many the mentioned countries, the USA managed to release them, but their independence became possible only with the constitutional right of the USA to interfere into the countries’ inner affairs. So, what is it, the American democratic idealism or the practice of American imperialism? The first option is closer and is considered to be more correct.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Freedom of Speech during the World War Trying to establish imaginary democracy in the whole world, the US government has realized that the democratic freedoms they have implemented in its own country should b limited. The cause of the limitation of the freedom of speech served Eugene Debs’ The Canton, Ohio Speech, Anti-War Speech which was declared on June 16, 1918. From the very beginning of the speech, it can be seen that the US government had what to worry about. Debs said that, â€Å"it is extremely dangerous to exercise the constitutional right of free speech in a country fighting to make democracy safe in the world† (n.p.). The main idea of the article is declared. The further discussion turns to the representation of the examples of unfairness of the USA on the world arena. The danger of this discussion for the USA is that its main reasons for implementation of the peace in the words are declared in the whole world. A person has appeared who dared to say it. Saying that it has become dangerous to express personal thoughts in the relation to some specific events and actions which happen in the world, Debs tries to attract social attention to the problem of what the USA tries to impose on human thinking and what it really does. The focus of this speech was the exposure of the imaginable democracy American people lived. Trying to show examples, Debs asked about the jurisdiction and law system. Is there a simple worker who has ever appointed a judge to his/her position? Federal judges have never been named by the working class. This means that there is nothing to talk about the democracy in the country which does not allow people rule the country. Americans are the nation which believes its president. If the president states that they live in the democratic society, all the actions the government implements are directed at the support of the regime. The same situation occurs in other countries of the world. One of the main dangers of this speech was the exposure of the real purposes the USA persuaded on the world arena and the creation of the Social Party which could become a problem to the implementation of the US expansion. This speech is considered to be a reaction to the Espionage Act of 1917 which clearly limited the nation n third sire to express their thoughts. No one could speak about the US enemies and promote their success. The information devoted to false reports which could influence the US success on the international arena was also prohibited. People were deprived of their right to express personal opinion, one of the main characteristic features of the democratic society. The desire to prevent people from the discussion of the international affairs during the war was caused by the government desire to eliminate any possibility of disclosure of main reasons of the â€Å"American democracy† in the world. Being afraid of expressing personal opinion in public, people became to remain silent even in the problems which do not seem prohibited under the Espionage Act of 1917. Conclusion In conclusion, it should be mentioned that the desire of the United States of America to create the democratic regimes in all countries in the world is contradicted by the action the USA does. Trying to prove the whole world that the main purpose the USA persuades is the democracy, we can easily see that this is not true. Having considered the examples of Cuba, Hawaii, Philippines, and Nicaragua, it is possible to state that the only thing which the USA desired was the capital expansion of those territories concealed under the mask of the implementation of the democratic society. The change of the regimes in different countries under the declaration of their independence or in the frames of the long lasting wars, the USA managed to maintain its imperialism almost in the whole world. Picturesque examples are offered in the book Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq by Stephen Kinzer, where the author strictly provides the examples of the American â€Å"ideal democracy† in the world. Looking at the contemporary world and the situation which has been established, it is possible to say that there are a lot of countries which function not under the American democratic rules and which the USA wants to control. All the conflicts which happen in the world are based on the issues of power, control and influence. Those who manage to keep the economy and politics of different countries under total control always win. This is exactly what the USA wants to do, but considering the recent case of the invasion of Iraq and the inability of the USA implement its control in that country it may be stated that there is a chance to avoid American imperialistic influence. Works Cited Debs, Eugene V. â€Å"The Canton, Ohio Speech, Anti-War Speech.† Internet Archive, 2001. Web. Espionage Act of 1917. 1917. Web. Kinzer, Stephen. Overthrow: Americaâ€⠄¢s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq. Times Books, 2007. Print. Parenti, Michael. â€Å"The Dynamic of Capital Expansion.† Against empire. Ed. Michael Parenti. San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books, 1995. 3-5. Print. Woodrow, Wilson. â€Å"War message to congress.† Joint Session of the Two Houses of Congress, 2 Apr. 1917. Web. This essay on Modern American History was written and submitted by user Zaniyah Juarez to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Japan Value Exchange Rates

Japan Value Exchange Rates The recent crisis in Japan that is currently underway is a major blow to the Japanese economy as a whole and to its currency ratings in international foreign exchange market. At the moment the Tokyo yen exchange rates have already started plummeting by an alarming percentage just few days after the crisis (Langundo).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Japan Value Exchange Rates specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A recent report indicates that the Japanese stock market is the hardest hit financially in the aftermath of the imminent explosion of the nuclear power plant which has further compounded an already existing problem (Langundo). Japan recent crisis has caused an â€Å"economic shock† in the country, a situation which comes about when natural disaster like Tsunami hits a country; it is more likely that a further weakening of the Japanese currency against all currencies will be the outcome as the compl ete damage that the tsunami caused is completely assessed in the coming days. This weakening of the Japanese currency which is also known as devaluation of the currency will greatly affect the economy by creating instability in the exchange rates (Aggarwal). The Japanese yen has already appreciated against the US dollar and surplus of the currency may be reported in Japanese market in the coming days which means the Yen is weakening against US dollar which will now become stronger; the only good news is that importers will benefit because of this weakening of Japanese currency but on the other hand exporters will be greatly affected since it will mean there products will lose value. The strengthening of the dollar may be due to immediate measures being taken by various firms and companies such as dumping of shares and massive conversion of already held Japanese Yen’s into dollars (Langundo). The devaluation of the yen literary means that, if the Japanese yen is trading at 70 against the dollar, it is likely to appreciate to about 75 against the dollar which in economics terms implies depreciation or weakening of the yen. The nuclear crisis being experienced is also directly affecting the yen value since majority of investors with shares in this sector have already started dumping their shares. The crisis is also likely to affect the import and export market. Indeed, the crisis has demolished many companies and even the nuclear plant which is one of the main sources of the electricity used in industries and domestic use.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a result, production in Japan will be affected and the country will be forced to do more importation compared to exportation until everything goes back to normal. Such an effect will also mean that exports will reduce due to decline in production which in turn means unbalanced trade that will eventually cause cash payment deficit to occur in the country (Aggarwal). Consequently, when exports have reduced, there will be an increase in demand for the foreign currency like US dollar. On the other hand, the demand for foreign currency will be followed by a further devaluation of the Japanese yen meaning that the yen will appreciate compared to the US dollar. Due to the devaluation of the local currency the trade of domestic goods and services should be expected to be cheaper compared to trade in foreign goods and services (Smith). However, there are measures that can be put in place to ensure that yen makes a comeback to its original value once again. For instance the central bank of Japan can regulate the strength of foreign currencies by maintaining the current exchange rates through sale of its foreign reserve in order to balance the capital outflow being experienced in the market (Smith). This will cause a shrink in the money supply which will in turn in crease the domestic interest rates thereby maintaining stability of the yen currency in the market the international market. Aggarwal, M. â€Å"Factors affecting the currency conversion rates† 2008. Web. http://ezinearticles.com/?Factors-Affecting-The-Currency-Conversion-Ratesid=1016704. Langundo, A. â€Å"Tokyo exchange falls sharply to 5 %.† 2011. Web. Smith, O. â€Å"Currency Exchange.† New Delhi: S.N publishers, 2007.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Japan Value Exchange Rates specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

The Cross Family of Words

The Cross Family of Words The Cross Family of Words The Cross Family of Words By Mark Nichol Cross, a word with a great variety of meanings, is also at the head of an extensive family of words, some of which are listed and defined in this post. Cross made its way into English circuitously from the Latin word crux, with stops in Old Irish and Old Norse. It originally referred to a post with a crossbeam on which condemned prisoners were hung to be executed. By its association with the execution of Jesus in such circumstances, it became a symbol of Christianity, not only as a t-shaped object but also as a series of gestures that collectively suggest the shape of the cross and are intended to convey an appeal to Jesus Christ for a blessing. Capitalized, the word refers to the specific cross on which the execution took place; in this way, it is also a metonym for the Christian religion. (A metonym is a figure of speech in which a detail associated with an entity or an idea represents the entire entity or idea.) Metaphorically, in the phrase â€Å"cross to bear,† the word also suggests a personal trial, evoking the story that Jesus was forced to drag his cross over his shoulder to the site of his execution. Cross also refers to any similarly shaped object or sign or to an x used as a signature. The word also denotes an act of hybridizing, or crossbreeding, living things or an animal that is a result of hybridization, as well as an intersection, a boxing punch, or a diagonal or lateral pass in soccer or any similar activity, as in a movement onstage during a theatrical performance. The word also pertains to an opposing or thwarting of an intention or to a dishonest or fraudulent contest or practice. Verb and adjectival forms apply to these definitions as well, and the adjective across means â€Å"over,† â€Å"through,† or â€Å"on the opposite side of,† as well as â€Å"throughout,† and pertains to intersecting or passing through at an angle. (Across is also an adverb, as in â€Å"Walk across the field.†) A crusade was originally a military expedition undertaken to assert political and religious control over the region of the Middle East associated with early Christianity; the series of such efforts that occurred during the Middle Ages is referred to as the Crusades. By extension, a crusade is any enthusiastic enterprise. The noun crucifixion, as well as the verb crucify, refers to execution on a cross; the verb also refers metaphorically to ridiculing, scorning, or tormenting someone in the public arena. Cruciform means â€Å"cross shaped,† a crucifer is a person who carries a cross in a religious procession or one of a family of edible plants (and a crozier is a symbolic shepherd’s crook carried by certain Christian clerics); cruciferous describes a specimen in the latter category. A cruciverbalist, meanwhile, is a preparer of crossword puzzles. Other words stemming from crux include the use of the Latin term in English to refer to a difficult or unsolved problem or an essential point or main feature; the resulting adjective crucial means â€Å"decisive† or â€Å"significant,† and excruciating is an adjective meaning â€Å"agonizing† or â€Å"extreme† and refers usually to pain but sometimes to psychologically uncomfortable situations or to unpleasant emotions such as boredom. As seen in a couple examples above, cross is also employed as the first element in a compound word. Other examples include crosswalk and crosswind; most of these are treated as closed compounds, but there are exceptions, including cross-eye and cross-stitch. Occasionally, cross is the second element, as in double-cross. Crucible appears to be related but is not; it derives from the Latin term crucibulum, referring to an earthen pot in which metals are melted. That function, and perhaps the resemblance to words stemming from crux that begin with the element cruc-, led to the connotation of a test or trial or a situation in which significant change occurs. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the General category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Exquisite AdjectivesWhat to Do When Words Appear Twice in a Row

Assignment # 2.2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

# 2.2 - Assignment Example portant because patients data will be stored I better way and also activities in the health facility will be done quickly meaning it would be manual or paper work which will need all the information to be in paper form and taken to the next medical professional but will be reflected direct to the professionals computers thus lowering the cost of employment. My advice to Carla is that she should ignore the opening in the other medical facility as a medical assistant because in the future also the facility will endorse this new technology despite been assured by her friend she has not heard any information for her practice joining a network or switching to the EMRs. If Carla decides to stay she should prepare herself mentally so that she may understand the new system and she will be of great help to the practice because of her basic computer skills and also because she is young she will be able to master the new technology faster than her other workmates. If I were her could have remained in the facility. As a healthcare professional, though I will be employed I will always take the work seriously as the owner because this is my passion, my career and I would like to see it in the next level. I will invest my time and resources to help all those who will be in need of my service at all the time. I will always set standards and examples for my coworkers to follow. I will make all the efforts to see the health care improve. I will always be in the frontline when it comes to reforming the nation’s health care system. Government should be fully be involved in reforming of healthcare services for instances the government should ensure that each citizen who is living beyond the poverty line have free access healthcare, they should also construct more facilities to make easier for patients to access healthcare services. It important for people to have health insurance because it helps in case the patient cost of treatment is huge, it relieves the patients family the

Your Site Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Your Site - Assignment Example Thus, a website should be user-friendly and connect with the user. It should be able to attract the customer and retain him. A website is only effective if it is able to achieve this task. The Wireframe of ABC Limited is an important component of the website design. This is the basic visual guideline of the website around which the information, pictures and other graphics are placed within the website (Kerr and Keats, 2009). When placing information and other elements on the website, it is important to consider the target customer and their way of interacting with the website. Research on this topic reveals that the average customer has a way in which he processes information on a website. This depends on his eye movement when he opens a website. A typical eye movement begins from the top left, moves to the center and then scans the right and left side of the website. This shows that the top left is the first interaction that the customer has visually with the website. It is here that most companies place their logo in order to identify the website to the customer. This will also be the position of the logo for ABC Company. The next place that the customer interacts with is the center of the website. This information will also be used strategically by ABC Limited. It will be here that ABC Limited would project its special offers that will be intended to lure the customers. This layout is quite similar to other websites of the same genre. This is an important consideration since most professional websites are built on nearly the same wireframe. These standard designs are built to reassure the customer that the website is professional and to make navigation easier. Most customers are used to the same layout and they expect others to carry the same layout. Totally unique wireframes confuse the customers and they tend to escape the website earlier (K elly, 2007). On the left side of the web page, a vertical text menu would appear. This

Analysis on John Locke’s Prose Approach Essay Example for Free

Analysis on John Locke’s Prose Approach Essay John Locke’s politically inclined state of establishing the innate sense of liberalism in his work is a manifestation of his political theories as well as with his deliberative arguments on certain instances that belie the natural and rational premises landscaping the governmental realm of ethical obligation as vanguard in illustrating the various interpretations reputable laws. Locke’s character in prose has dignified his capability to distinguish the form of biases which coherently occur in most obscure pieces in the world of literature (Locke, 1994). Moreover, such is evident that his contributory echelon on political philosophy and argumentative statements on ideas which seemed to be true to the eyes of many has been refuted in the most intellectual manner thus substantiating such manifestos in a precise and concise way (Locke Goldie, 1997). Perceivably one of the astounding works of the aforementioned author is Two Treatises of Government, wherein he had been named as a father of modern constitutional state thus creating a masterpiece crediting his worth as a writer and a historian (Forster, 2005). The amazing factor of his work is well delivered in his method in categorizing the ideas which he wishes readers to swim on to thus not making them leave the gist of the whole thought. In the light, he expands his words to a rather conventional type but not too obsolete for that instance, so as not to drive away the enthusiasm of his work the contemporary state (Forster, 2005). His prose, being factual and persuasive at the same time explicitly denote his grandeur and ability to trigger classical concerns yet delivering an association if unorthodox political opinions armed with spontaneous solutions to his established squabbles . The fundamentals surfacing in his works may utterly sound confusing; however, it could then be taken to assumption that such is a ‘tricky’ way to launch a new label in the vortex and competition in prose writing and English mind despotism (Simonds, 1995). References: Forster, G. (2005). John Lockes Politics of Moral Consensus. New York: Cambridge University Press. Locke, J. (1994). Two Treatises of Government. United Kingdom: Salem Press, Inc. Locke, J. , and Goldie, M. (1997). Locke: Political Essays. New York: Cambridge University Press. Simonds, R. T. (1995). John Lockes use of classical legal theory. International Journal of the Classical Tradition, 3(4), 424.

Essays --

Recently, one little girl managed to light up national news and melt the heart of the public. A video of a kindergarten Christmas program has gone viral due to 5 year old Claire Koch of Clearwater, Florida. Instead of just singing along with the other kids, Claire did something else; she also signed the entire program in American Sign Language so her parents, who are deaf, could enjoy the program as well. Claire is a CODA, or child of deaf adult. Her parents have used ASL in the home since before she was born, and the little girl can now sign fluently. (Jernigan) As we learned in class, CODA is a term used in the hearing community; in the Deaf community, they are more likely to be referred to as â€Å"Mother Father Deaf.† 90% of deaf parents have hearing children (Moore & Levitan). A large percentage of CODAs have both deaf parents, because approximately 90% of Deaf people marry another Deaf person. (Filer, and Filer) When a hearing child is born to deaf parents, they are considered to be part of both hearing culture and deaf culture. They also are viewed as bilingual usually (if the deaf parents indeed use sign language). However, there are times where Deaf parents will not sign with their child. The reasons vary; some do it so they will not rely on their child later in life to be an interpreter for them, others may actually view sign language negatively. (Singleton & Tittle) Deaf parents raising hearing children can sometimes be thought of as them raising "foreign" children. The idea behind this is the fact that just because they were born to Deaf parents does not mean they will automatically inherit the Deaf culture. The children will grow up to know that, technically speaking, they would be share more with the hearing world. T... ...unity. (Preston) To those who were not previously fully immersed to a large degree in the hearing community, it can be a real shock. Being a child of Deaf adults is by no means easy. From the short time I spent talking to Jeremy back in October, I can tell that there is some definite frustrations sometimes. The idea that young children are sometimes the one link that Deaf parents have to the hearing world can be challenging to grasp. I myself probably would have gone along with having a child interpret for me if a situation warranted. Now that I have looked into the life of CODAs and know enough American Sign Language to have basic conversations, hopefully it will never come to that. I think if there was a little more effort by both the hearing community and Deaf community to come to a better understanding of the other, there might be less strain on these children.

Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of youth justice policies in England and Wales since 1997 Essay

Introduction When Labour took office in 1997 they claimed that they would be tough on crime and the causes of crime. The first 6 months were unprecedented, with six consultation documents being released on youth and crime each containing its own proposals these were first published in Tackling Youth Crime, Reforming Youth Justice (Labour 1996). To start this essay I will first discuss Labours 1997 White Paper, No more excuses: A new approach to tackling youth crime in England and Wales, where policy was laid out and then later legislated in The Crime and Disorder Act 1998. From this I will evaluate the weaknesses and strengths of the various elements of this policy which will include the aims of the youth justice system. Then in the second part move to evaluate the abolition of the doli incapax, the reparation order and parenting order. Thirdly I will evaluate the child safety order, local child curfew, final warning scheme, action plan order. The fourth part will be an evaluation of the detention and training order and new arrangements for secure remands of 12-16 year olds. And finally the establishment of the Youth Justice Board for England and Wales, Youth Offending Teams and the duties of the local authorities and other agencies to make sure the availability of the appropriate youth justice services. And then finally bring all my findings together to produce a clear and comprehensive conclusion; which I believe has many strengths and some weaknesses. The Labour government’s 1997 White paper, No more excuses: A new approach to tackling youth crime in England and Wales is a document which sets out labours programme of reform for the youth justice system in England and Wales, it aims are â€Å"a clear strategy to prevent offending and re-offending, that offenders, and their parents, face up to their offending behaviour and take responsibility for it, earlier, more effective intervention when young people first offend, faster, more efficient procedures from arrest to sentence, partnership between all youth justice agencies to deliver a better, faster system† Home Office (1997). According to the Home Office (1997) the aim of the youth justice system is to prevent offending by young people. And the Crime and Disorder Bill has in it a requirement that it is the duty of all people working in the youth justice system to uphold these. The requirement covers all the youth justice agencies in England and Wales like the police, social services the probation services and others working in the Youth Offending Teams, the Crown prosecution service, defence solicitors, the prison services and courts and the way they deal with young adults. The claim is that this will provide unity between them all and that everyone is striving for the same purpose. The government will also complement this with a new proposal for a new Youth Justice Board for England and Wales who will give advice on how to set standards and how to monitor performance. Also this will not take over or supersede practitioner’s previous roles, but will support them to understand their actions and choices when they deal with young people this can help to stop offending and can prevent avoidable delays; such as the chances of offending when awaiting sentence can be reduced, also making young people responsible for their own behaviours which can help youths understand and change their behaviours. Also community and custodial penalties whose priorities are on the causes of offending which can be enforced can help. This duty that has been stated is a clear strength bringing the various agencies and services in the same line and having one clear aim of what the task ahead is this also eliminates any confusion that might have existed. The government according to the Home Office (1997) proposes that an aim of youth justice system and the duty discussed previously and their practitioners would be supported by more complete, non statutory objectives for these agencies. These would support the proposals made by Jack Straw’s Youth Justice Task Force which is a variety of people and groups that have a high knowledge of the system and have now issues of victims and representatives of the governmental departments. The Task Force stated their recommendations for preventing offending which were, a speedy administration of justice so that the accused matter can be sorted out quickly, confronting offenders with the consequences of their actions, for themselves their families, victims and their communities. Punishment which reflects the seriousness and the persistence of the offending. Also to support reparation to victims by the offenders and to strengthen the responsibilities of parents and to help offenders to fix their problems and to build a sense of the personal self. This is also strength as all involved have a good knowledge of the problems and the system and would be a good resource to the system to have. And also what the Task Force has recommended is also a good step forward as it is these that have stopped the system from being efficient. Moving onto the abolition of the doli incapax the reparation order and parenting order. The doli incapax according to Muncie (2009:275) In England and Wales, children fewer than 10 could not be found guilty of a criminal offence, and the law for many years believed that those under 14 were incapable of criminal intent. But during the 1990s the doli incapax, which had been in the law since the 14th century, was being challenged by both the right and the left. This was due to the Bulger case, the policy was put under review by the conservatives after the 1994 High Court ruling. Three years later it was abolished in the Crime and Disorder Act, the reasons given for this were so that they could convict young offenders who wreaked havoc on communities this was based on the fact that they believed that 10 and 13 year olds could capable of knowing between right and wrong. This was against what the UN had recommended for The UK which they had made in 1995 then 2002 to come in line with the rest of Europe but the government went totally in the other direction. They gave no direction to the courts and to the youth offending teams that overall child welfare is the main consideration. This is a weakness as it contradicts what Labour had said in there White Paper, and the fact that the YOTs would be confused with conflicting policies. This legislation manages not to take the child’s age into consideration and this can be seen just by looking at the rest of Europe are the children in the UK not the same. The reparation order is for young adults to understand the cost of their actions and to take responsibility for them. What is asked is that they repair the damage caused directly to the victim through mediation if they both agree or to the community indirectly cleaning up graffiti and other tasks around the community. This would be managed by the YOT, this can be a real strength in the rehabilitation process giving something back to the victims and the community and being able to see the damage they have caused helping to change their lives around. Also the parenting order which has been stated by the Home Office (1997) to be created so that it can give support to parents so they can control their children. The order requires parents attend a counselling or guidance session once a week for 3 months and if the courts think that it is needed then a requirement to make sure that children attend school and to see that they get home on a certain time. This is also a strength as it forces parents to be responsible as some parents let their children do what they want to and so this is a good way of making parents act so that they can help their children from offending. Now moving onto the child safety order, which according to the Home Office (1997) has been developed to safeguard children who are under ten where there is risk that these children will be involved in crime or signs of anti social behaviour can be seen. This could be available to local authorities in the family proceeding court. A court would be able to make a child stay at home at a certain time or ban them from going to certain places. They could also stop certain behaviours like truanting; this could also be combined with a parenting order. And if these are not obeyed then the local authority can start proceedings. The strength of this is a the combination of the two orders as it can be most effective this way by handing responsibility 2 both parent and child giving maximum results. Then there is the Local child curfew which is for the Childs own good and to stop neighbourhood crime and disorder and states that children should not be out without supervision at night. This can be used by the local authorities and police but they would have to get permission from the Home secretary. Also the council could then bar children under 10 from certain public places after certain times. These can last for up to 90 days and if these are to be extended then police and local community. The strength of this is that it involves the local community so determining what’s best for the members of their own community. Then there is the final warning where the Home Office (1997) has replaced the cautioning with a statuary police reprimand, what happens is that the police can decide to reprimand a child and give them a final warning or to bring criminal charges to the offender. What then happens is a community intervention programme is forced which makes the offender and his family address the causes this behaviour which can help solve the problem. What the final warning entails is that the first offence the offender can receive a reprimand by the police if the crime is not that serious and if it carries on then a another final warning or criminal charges can be pressed. But on no grounds must 2 final warnings be given. The strength of this is that it lets the offender know that they will be strict and will not put up with it again a final warning is a final warning. Also an action plan order which is like a community penalty for young offenders, this is a small, rigorous programme where community intervention is used combined with punishment and rehabilitation so that the offender’s behaviour can be changed and more crime can be stopped. The strength in this lies in the way that it uses various methods simultaneously like community intervention, punishment and rehabilitation which can only increase the chances of success. Moving onto and new arrangements for secure remands of 12-16 year olds. The Home office (1997) state that the government should have undeniable powers to remand to secure accommodation. For young people who are of the age 10-16 and are awaiting trial. And so The Criminal Justice Act 1991 and the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 included in its provisions to amend the Children and Young Persons Act 1969 which was to allow courts to remand 12-16 years olds directly to secure local authority accommodation with certain conditions. But this was not put into operation. The conservatives had started a building programme which was for 170 new local authority secure places, there completion date was 1998. But Labour said that these would be not enough. And so declared to use the Crime and Disorder Bill to implement court ordered remand power on some groups of youths. Priority would be gives to 12-14s then girls of the age 15 and 16 and also boys of that age when places become available. This is due to courts believing that these children are vulnerable and they are emotionally and physically immature and so there is a danger that they could harm themselves, this is also strength as it recognises that they are still young but this also does contradict other policies in this White Paper which it does on many levels. Also detention and training orders, these will give powers the Home Office (1997) states can be used for 10-17 year olds and courts can use these only if it is a very serious crime and if they are persistent offenders and the court believes it is needed to protect the public. This will also added to 10-11 year olds but would only be permitted by parliament if seen to be needed. The length of the sentence will be divided, half of it will be in custody and half in community supervision and this also could be adjusted if good behaviour is seen. This is a good as it does not just impose a detention where by this can harden the youth and in some cases lead to further crimes but with the community supervision would let the offender know that they have been given a chance to mend their ways. Then Maguire, Morgan and Reiner (2002:560) discuss Labours ‘new youth justice’ which is the forming of the Youth Justice Board (YJB) and the Youth offending Teams (YOTs); and also what takes place through this legislation is a restructure of non custodial penalties in the youth court. So considering Labours main aim of having a youth justice system which prevents offending by children and young adults, the way labour went about this is to impose order from the centre. There tools to enable this was a catalogue of legislations, also the then Home secretary Jack Straw formed a youth justice task force the aim of this was to keep a tight link with all the other agencies involved with young offenders. Due to the section 41 of the Crime Disorder Act the YJB had turned into a non departmental public body which was then sponsored by the Home Office. The job of the YJB was to monitor the running of the youth justice system and the provision of the youth justice services and also the national standards and establishing the right performance measures. What also the 1998 Act made possible was for the home secretary to give the board more powers which included the YJB becoming the commissioning body of all the placements that are under 18 in a secure facility on remand or have a sentence from the courts. The YJB was also given control over commissioning places including prison services YOTs, secure training centres (STCs) and local authority secure units. This is also strength as it brings together all the agencies under one roof you could say and so the aims are understood by all and are the same this can only help. This brings me to managerialism, the reason the YJB and the YOTs were set up in the first place was because according to Muncie (2009:297) investigations from the Public Accounts Committee, Audit commission and the National Audit Office recommended and supported subjugating professional skills independent managerial ideals of what works, which could attach certain resources to credible and successful outcomes and which could initiate responsibility to law and order from a central state to a sequence of semi independent local partnerships which will include privatized bodies and voluntary agencies. Words such as individual need, rehabilitation, reformation, penal purpose and due process are replaced by techniques of classification and actuarialism, risk assessment and resource management changes all the earlier understanding of law and order from understanding motivations of crime to making crime bearable through universal coordination. This is a total difference from earlier ways and managerial system is thought to lower the standard or expectations of what a government can achieve in the youth justice system. This to me is a weakness as it is being run like a business which always has its priorities in cost and reduction, but also I can see strengths to as it can be more efficiently run with professionals running it – with the right knowledge. The Act also contained anti social behaviour orders. Muncie (2009:317) explains that they are usually refer to a variety of things such as youths that hang out causing trouble making a nuisance of them and to their neighbours, making noise, vandalising property, littering, and causing graffiti to public property and drunkenness. This has been a priority in England and Wales, the key to New Labour was to strengthen the ability of the criminal justice system so they could treat disorder and the lack of respect but serious crimes too as it was clear that disorder was rising and was affecting neighbourhoods and also that it was a sign of times to come more serious crimes. The police and courts were said to be powerless against the nuisance and the anti social behaviour that was being caused and that this was being mixed in with impunity. Second at the centre was a program and wish not just to reduce crime and disorder, but to encourage a process of civil renewal and civic responsibility. Third the broken windows theory was taken aboard a it was believed that a failure to accept zero tolerance policing of lesser serious offending and signs of disorder could only further destroy already deprived and marginalized communities. The Anti social behaviour order (ASBO) was the flagship of New Labour in their 1998 Crime and Disorder Act. Muncie (2009:318) explains that this is a civil not a criminal order and can be given by the police and local authority to anyone that is over 10 years of age whose behaviour can cause alarm, distress or even harassment. The minimum time an order can last is two years. But if you breach the order it will be treated as a criminal offence and the punishment for this can be up to two years in prison for juveniles and five years for adults. Certain local authorities went even further and started to experiment with Acceptable Behaviour Contracts (ABCs) which were for even lower levels of behaviours and for lower ages those below for ten years of age. And if they are given an order then they must agree and to take steps to correct their behaviour, the steps will be decided by local youth offending team (YOT) and their parents must also agree on the steps. Initially when the ASBO was introduced it was said that it was for adults that were nuisances to their neighbours, but this statement was later changed and became for young people and areas that high crime rates became the targets of this order. The â€Å"Home office review, 58% were made on under 18 year olds and a further 16% on those aged between 18 and 21. There are certain steps in this that are positive but to me there are inherent weaknesses to, like to give anti social behaviour order and lock youths in their houses and stop them from going into certain locations can work but does not address the real problem, and Labour could try and find the cause of these problems as this to me is just breeding further adult criminals and as we have seen lately getting an ASBO is some thing to show off so demoralising it entirely. So to conclude I have found that Labour have a lot of strengths in their Youth Policy but have inherent weaknesses which stem from various contradictions in the policy. The strength that I have found are first of all is the duty that has been put into the legislation, which brings various agencies and services together, which unifies them and sets a main agenda that all must adhere to as it is in the legislation to follow the duty and eliminates any confusion that might have existed, and another strength is to support these by the task force which comprises of professionals and people in the field that can offer the best advice. Also the reparation order is a strength as it forces parents to be responsible as some parents let their children do what they want to and so this is a good way of making parents act so that they can help their children from offending and make them responsible. Then the child safety order, the strength of this is a the combination of the two orders as it can be most effective this way by handing responsibility 2 both parent and child giving maximum results. Then the local child curfew’s strength lies in the way it involves the local community so determining what’s best for the members of their own community. Then there is the final warning where the strength in this lies in the way that it uses various methods simultaneously like community intervention, punishment and rehabilitation which can only increase the chances of success. Which brings me to secure remands of 12-16 year olds which is also a strength as it recognises that they are still young but this also does contradict other policies in this White Paper which it does on many levels, the detention training programme has strength because it does not just impose a detention where by this can harden the youth and in some cases lead to a life of crime but with the community supervision would let the offender know that they have been given a chance to mend their ways. The forming of the YOTs and YJB is strength as it brings together all the agencies under one roof you could say, and so the aims are understood by all and are the same this can only help, and managerialism is strength as it can be more efficiently run with professionals in charge. Now I will just conclude my findings of the weaknesses which are; the abolition of the doli incapax to me is a weakness as it manages not to take the child’s age into consideration and this can be seen just by looking at the rest of Europe, are the children in the UK not the same. Another weakness is the ASBO to lock youths in their houses and stop them from going into certain locations can work but does not address the real problem, and Labour could try and find the cause of these problems as this to me is just breeding further adult criminals and as we have seen lately getting an ASBO is something to be proud off and to show off so demoralising the order entirely. There are strengths and weaknesses in this policy but I have found the strengths outweigh the weaknesses. Bibliography Home Office, (1997), White Paper, No More Excuses: A new approach to tackling youth crime in England and Wales Muncie, J. (2009), Youth and Crime, 3rd edition, London, Sage publications Maguire, M. Morgan, R and Reiner, R. (2002), The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd Edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Goldson, B. Muncie, J. (2006), Youth Crime and Justice, London, Sage Publications Baldock, J. Manning, N. and Vickerstaff, S. (2007), Social Policy, 3rd edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Child labour Essay

Abstract It has been observed over decades that, poverty forces poor families to send their children to work, which results in a serious problem the world is facing nowadays. Child labour can leave many severe consequences on children and their families. When children work, it does not mean as a standard, they support their families economically, neither all of them get paid for their work since many of them work as bonded labour or as slaves. In addition to that, they face many problems which may cause permanent damage to their childhood. Children usually work to contribute and provide financial support to their families. Their health is often ignored by their parents or they may not be aware about their children’s health. This paper illustrates how both India and Nigeria have adopted laws and regulations to eliminate child labour. However despite all the efforts, child labour and the factors that  influence the incidence of child labour continues to be prevalent. The results from this study explain the reasons which forces children to work, poverty. This paper also draws conclusion that governments, societies, and communities should cooperate in a better way with each other to decrease child labour. Possible and innovate solutions and suggestions are arose at the end of this paper. Keywords: child labour, poverty, education, India, Nigeria, governments, International labour organizations 1 Introduction For many years, child labour has been one of the biggest obstacles to social development. It is a challenge and long-term goal in many countries to abolish all forms of child labour. Especially in developing countries, it is considered as a serious issue these days. Child labour refers to children who miss their childhood and are not able to have the basic amenities which a child should have. Recently the International Labour Organization (ILO,2013) estimated there are around 215 million children between the ages five to fourteen who works worldwide. They are often mistreated and work for prolonged hours, in very bad conditions. This can affect their health physically, mentally and emotionally. These children do not have the basic rights like access to school or health care. According to ILO (2013) the largest numbers of child labourers are working in hazardous work and the total number of child workers is increasing, even though it is forbidden by law. These children are vulnerable to diseases and they struggle with long-term physical and psychological pain. The main cause that induces children to work is poverty. These children work for their survival and their families. (Mapaure, 2009).Some studies like Dessy and Pallage (2003) argue not all the work that children do is harmful or brutal.  Some work may provide successful learning opportunities, such as babysitting or newspaper delivery jobs, but not if the work exposes them to psychological stress, like human trafficking, prostitution and pornographic activities. The international organizations have made great efforts to eliminate child labour across the world. Many countries have adopted legislation to prohibit child labour; nonetheless child labour is widespread throughout the world. It is not easy task for low income countries to achieve banning child labour. Several studies and international organizations considered that education is the key strategy in addressing child labour, and it can help children to stay away from work. However not every family can afford to send their children to school or, even if they enrolled, afford to keep them attending the school. 1.2 Research purpose and questions Child labour is a serious problem and a challenge for many developing countries. Many countries have enacted various laws and have taken serious initiatives to eradicate child labour, but still the problem is very widespread throughout the world. This paper critically examined child labour in India and Nigeria and how both governments undertake various programs to eradicate child labour through different organizations and agencies. In addition to understanding and investigating different reasons behind the plague of child labour that has engulfed throughout the world and a brief review on how child labour has so far been studied .Further, this paper states how to contribute to in raising the government’s awareness about the importance of issues related to child labour, education and their living condition. This research work addresses a question: What are the current patterns in child labour in India and Nigeria now? What kind of policies are adopted to address child labour in India and Nigeria? How does policies adopted relate to previously identified causes? 1.3 Methodology This study it has been based on a comparative case study between two countries. The comparative method is going to give the researchers practical tools for analysis and research. This approach allows the researcher to understand when two or more cases are set against one another(Bryman 2008, p.58). In order to answer research question secondary data is collected through literature material researched from academic books, articles, and news and research reports on child labour, poverty education and public health of child labour. The literature review is mostly based on research papers of different scholars and reports provided by UNICEF, ILO and World Bank in terms of international labour standards and human rights conventions. Secondary data were also extracted from international organisations like the ILO, the UN and the World Bank. This paper attempts to provide with realistic overview of the child labour situation. Peer reviewed online resources and academic articles written by d ifferent scholars, were used in this paper to determine the existing child labour policies. 1.4 Delimitation Since child labour is an extremely complex phenomenon, this study is limited to examining the nature and extent of child labour aged between five and fourteen years old. The largest number of working children between the ages of five and fourteen involved in economic activities worldwide. The study focuses on the fight against child labour, and the importance of legislation for working children. This study looks at the two countries India and Nigeria and to describe   what policies have already been implemented to tackle child labour. India and Nigeria have been chosen for the study because today, Asia has more child labour in the world, for example India has the largest number of world’s working children with almost every third child being a child labour  and every fourth child between the age group of five to fifteen is engaged in some economic activities. While, Nigeria has the highest the incidence of child labourers in Africa. Both countries have been experiencing th e burden of the phenomenon and difficulties to eradicate it(Bhat& Rather, 2009; Owolabi, 2012). 1.5 Outline This study is divided into four chapters. Chapter One provides the background of the problem, the purpose of the research question, methodology, delimitations and outline. Chapter Two explores the situation of child labour in India and Nigeria and then explains the problems of enforcing child labour regulations. Chapter Three gives an overview and definition of child labour- , rural and urban, the differences between boys and girls engaged in economic activity, the link between child labour and poverty, various factors involved in child labour. After a description of the International Legal frameworks of ILO and UNICEF and also describes some of the major international and regional organizations, governments and the work they have done to fight against child labour. Chapter Four presents the theoretical framework which gives outline of the causes behind child labour,the child labour problems in relation to primary schooling and the reasons which makes children drop out of school or not go to school. Chapter Five, the results of the study is reported. In Chapter six presents the conclusion. 2 Background The incidence of child labour is most prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa followed by Asia and the Pacific. The prevalence of child labour is very high in sub-Saharan Africa especially in Nigeria. About 48 million child laborers across sub-Saharan Africa, including 15 million in Nigeria engaged in child labour (Ajakaye,2013) In Asia and the Pacific is the region with the largest number of child labour, India has the largest number of children in the world (ILO,2012)Child labour is an old phenomenon in both India and Nigeria According to Vaknin(2009), it is traditional in both countries to  send a child to work children participated in agricultural and household work. Parents consider that the work help children learn new skills, however these children are exposed to hazards and to physical factors. Both countries were colonized by British. Nigeria became a British colony in 1800 but acquired its independence in 1960. Since independence the country experienced a very violent history. Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa with more than 170 million people. The country has the largest oil and gas reserves in sub-Saharan Africa. Despite its oil wealth, however, Nigeria remains highly underdeveloped. Poor governance and corruption have limited infrastructure development and social service delivery and slowing economic growth keeping much of the population suffers from extreme poverty (Ploch,2013) In 1612 India became British colony and independent in 1947. India is world’s second most populous country with 1.2 billion people. Indian economy is among the fastest in the world, however the level of poverty in India is still high with high rate illiteracy rates, disease, and malnutrition and largest awareness of poor people in the world(Krishna , 2012) In this chapter I look into the child labour situation in India and Nigeria and how government supporting to eliminate child labour. 2.1 Child labour in India The use of child labour is very prevalence in India and the cause is deep rooted with poverty. UNICEF India has estimated 28 million children aged five to fourteen involved in work (UNICEF,2011) Child labour is not a new phenomenon in India where children has always worked. During the industrial revolution child labour increased, due to the shift of labour movements to colonial countries. Children can be found in every sector of the informal economy (Molanka,2008).The incidence of working children in India are engaged in hazardous occupations such as factories manufacturing diamonds, fireworks, silk and carpets, glass and bricks(Waghamode& Kalyan,2013). There are several factors that force children to work such as inadequate economic growth, poverty, unemployment over population and lack of education and health care (Ahmad,2012). On school attendance in India a large number of children between ten to fourteen years of age are not enrolled in school because of household economic condition. Attendance in school or dropout differs for male and female while boys are more likely to provide financial income for the family, girls are more involved in household chores (Kakoli & Sayeed ,2013).High illiteracy and dropout rates are high in India due to inadequacy of the educational system. Even through many poor families don’t see education as a benefit to society, they consider that work develops skills that can be used to earn income (Ahmed, 2012) 2.2 The legal framework and policies to control child labour in India The India government has established various proactive policies towards elimination of child labour. India has not yet ratified ILO Conventions 138 and 182 on banning child labour and eliminating the worst forms of exploitation. However the government of India implemented a child labour law in 1986(The Child Labour Prohibition and Regulation Act) the legislation sets a minimum age for employment of children at fourteen years and forbid child labour in dangerous sectors. The Government prohibits forced and bonded child labour but is not able to enforce this prohibition. The Child Labour Prohibition and Regulation Act does not forbid child labour but consider about regulating it.But indeed the law does not eliminate all forms of child labour specially when the vast majority of children under the age of fourteen are working in family farms or doing households (Venkatarangaiya Foundation;2005). India has a number of child labour projects which have been implemented to help children from hazardous occupations and provide them an education. Including the National Child Labour Policy (NCLP) started in 1987. The aim of NCLP is to help children in hazardous activities and provide non-formal education, vocational training, supplementary nutrition etc. The ILO IPEC (International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour) is also another progarmme which eliminate child labour, the programme sponsors 175 projects in India(Padmanabhan,2010 ) Furthermore, several NGOs like Care India, Child Rights and You, Global March against Child Labour, etc. have taken up the task to get the children back to school and also volunteers along with villagers. The MV Foundation is  non-governmental organisation (NGO) whose mission is to tackle child labour through promoting elementary education, even approaching parents to send their children to school. In spite of various laws regarding child labour and much efforts done by the non-governmental organizations, nonetheless children continue to work on a massive scale in most parts of the country. This is a problem because most child labour laws in India do not cover all types of work such as agriculture, wholesale trade, restaurants and domestic works. Usually these children are the most vulnerable child labourers (Venkatarangaiya Foundation;2005). Despite these efforts, child labour legislation to protect children has been unsuccessful, this is because of the majority of Indian population lives in rural areas with lack of infrastructure and is difficult to enforcement of laws and policies in rural areas. Many of the policies and legislative tools in India are rooted deeply in defection, allowing for illegal behaviours to take advantage of flaws. Many people believe that the cause of these behaviours is something technical, it will be shown that there is a relative heavy percentage of human omitting factor involved, often arising from the mentioned attitudes towards children’s work(Murphy, 2005). 2.3 Child labor in Nigeria Child labour is prevalent in urban centers in Nigeria. This is because a large number of people move from the rural areas to urban area. Over the years there has been a rapid growth in Nigeria’s population because of massive rural-urban migration. For instance Uyo is the capital of Akwa Ibom State, the city has experienced rapid urbanization and many poor rural families struggle for a better life in urban areas. This pushes families to force their children to work in order to supplement family incomes (Okafor,2010; Nseabasi & Abiodun 2010). The number of child labour is increasing in Nigeria, in 1995, the number of child labour was twelve million while by 2006 the number of child labour under the age fourteen has risen to fifteen million (Adegun,2013). The International Labor Organization estimates that about 25 percent of Nigeria’s 80 million children under the age of fourteen are involved in child labour. Children works in different  sectors such as farms, domestic help, in fishing, mining, armed conflict, street hawking, and child trafficking. The number of child labour involved in street hawking is a very common form of child labour in Nigerian cities, these children working from morning to evening and as a result of this, they do not have the time to enroll in schools or most of them drop out of school. Awosusi& Adebo (2012) assumes that many child labourers in Nigeria are abused physically, mentally, sexually and psychologically. They work long hours under dangerous and hazardous conditions with little or no pay benefits. Education in Nigeria is compulsory for a child that till nine years old. Nigerian government makes primary education free and compulsory for all children However, many children do not attend school, about six million children in Nigeria, both boys and girl, are estimated to be working .The dropout rates for primary school are high for both boys and girls because of several factors such as poverty and early marriage teenage pregnancy poor school, or cultural and religious issues (Awosusi& Adebo,2012; Elijah & Okoruwa,2006) 2.4 The legal framework and policies to control child labour in Nigeria Several policies and legislations have been adopted by the Federal Government of Nigeria for improving the welfare of children by eradicating child labour. However, ILO (2000) states some of the legislation and policies have deteriorated, and are not being imposed. Although, there is no direct labour policy in the country, there are several policies and social programmes which aims at improving education, health, population, social development, and child welfare if enforced would help to reduce child labour (ILO,2000) The Federal Labor Act Government have set the minimum age for the employment of children at twelve years and is in force in all the 36 states of Nigeria. The Nigeria’s Labor Act permits children at any age to perform light work in domestic service or work with family member in agriculture. However, the Child Rights Act prohibits the worst forms of child labour, including the forced labour of children and use of children in prostitution or in armed conflict. The Labor Act sets different ages for various hazardous occupations. For instance, a child aged fifteen or older can work in  industries. The law forbids children under age of sixteen to work underground or to work with machines but clearly allow children aged between sixteen to eighteen to do these hazardous occupations. However, the same law prohibits employment of child under the age of 11  eighteen to work in harmful environment. The law does not remove children from domestic service, this can increased incentives for parents to send their children to work (United States Department of Labor, 2011). In 2002 Nigeria ratified Convention No. 138, the Minimum Age Convention and Convention No. 182, the Worst Forms of Child Labour. Nigeria also adopted the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, which appeared to have laid rest to the argument that children have no clearly definable rights in Nigeria. Both the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) were adopted in 1991 and 1985 respectively. However both the CRC and CEDAW have now been â€Å"domesticated† in Nigeria. The African Charter has also been domesticated by Nigeria. However, the National Assembly should seriously look into these and other international laws, especially human rights issues that adversely affect the rights and fundamental freedoms of the citizenry. Thus, the problem now is how effectively to enforce and monitor the implementation of these provisions as they affect children’s and women’s rights in Nigeria. This also presupposes that all social rights should be made justifiable in Nigeria so as to empower the less privileged in the society (Onyemachi, 2010). The Nigerian government has provided an enabling environment and support for these civil society organizations (CSOs) to thrive and has drawn from their work formulate policies, programmes and interventions for child victims of abuse and violence (Ekpenyong& Sibirii, 2011). On 2000, the Nigerian Government established a national program to eliminate the worst forms of child labour in Nigeria (Elijah& Okoruwa, 2006). Despite all these children are still abused. Ekpenyong and Sibirii (2011) states the reason child labour is prevalent is due to the economic situation where many families  live below poverty and can barely earn enough to feed themselves and their children. Furthermore mainly child laborers are engaged at the household level or street hawking Togunde and Arielle (2008) argues that regulations regarding street hawking have been difficult to control by the government.

Carl Jung essays

Carl Jung essays Carl Jung was born in 1875 in Switzerland. He was a disciple of Sigmund Freud. He helped Freud develop and refine psychoanalytic theory. (Zimbardo Pg.391) After a conflict between them Jung and Freud separated. Jung wrote a book called Symbols of Transformation. In which he disagreed with Freuds ideas about repressed wishes. Jung also disagreed with Freud on how import Freud thought sexuality was. Carl Jung emphasized that the unconscious determines a persons personality. He claimed that the unconscious had two layers. The first was the personal unconscious. This is where a persons individual memories are stored. The Jung term for the personal unconscious is a portion of the unconscious corresponding roughly to the Freudian id.(Zimbardo Pg.391) This is where the important details are stored when they are repressed or forgotten about. The second layer is the collective unconscious. This is an inaccessible layer that contains all learned experiences. The collective unconscious involves a reservoir for instinctive memories which exist in all living people. They bound together generations of human history. (Zimbardo pg. 391) These bounds of history are called archetypes. Jung also said that the collective unconscious is hereditary. Archetypes have two main groups, the anima or animus and shadow. The anima archetype for males and the animus archetype for females. The anima archetype is the female side of the masculine personality and the animus is the masculine side of the female personality. (Britanica.com) The shadow is descriptive in its name. This is the dark and negative side of our personality. Jung said that the shadow represents, the destructive and aggressive tendencies that we dont recognize in our personalities. ( Zimbardo Pg.392) Jungs concept of principle of opposites portrays each personality as a balance between opposing pa...

Logistics Behind US Federal Regulations

Logistics Behind US Federal Regulations Federal regulations are specific details directives or requirements with the force of law enacted by the federal agencies necessary to enforce the legislative acts passed by Congress. The Clean Air Act, the Food and Drug Act, the Civil Rights Act are all examples of landmark legislation requiring months, even years of highly publicized planning, debate, compromise and reconciliation in Congress. Yet the work of creating the vast and ever-growing volumes of federal regulations, the real laws behind the acts, happens largely unnoticed in the offices of the government agencies rather than the halls of Congress. Regulatory Federal Agencies Agencies, like the FDA, EPA, OSHA and at least 50 others, are called regulatory agencies  because they are empowered to create and enforce rules regulations that carry the full force of law. Individuals, businesses, and private and public organizations can be fined, sanctioned, forced to close, and even jailed for violating federal regulations. The oldest Federal regulatory agency still in existence is the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, established in 1863 to charter and regulate national banks. The  Federal Rulemaking Process The process of creating and enacting federal regulations is generally referred to as the rulemaking process. First, Congress passes a law designed to address a social or economic need or problem. The appropriate regulatory agency then creates regulations necessary to implement the law. For example, the Food and Drug Administration creates its regulations under the authority of the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act, the Controlled Substances Act and several other acts created by Congress over the years. Acts such as these are known as enabling legislation, because the literally enable the regulatory agencies to create the regulations required to administer enforce them. The Rules of Rulemaking Regulatory agencies create regulations according to rules and processes defined by another law known as the Administration Procedure Act (APA). The APA defines a rule or regulation as... [T]he whole or a part of an agency statement of general or particular applicability and future effect designed to implement, interpret, or prescribe law or policy or describing the organization, procedure, or practice requirements of an agency. The APA defines rulemaking as†¦ [A]gency action which regulates the future conduct of either groups of persons or a single person; it is essentially legislative in nature, not only because it operates in the future but because it is primarily concerned with policy considerations. Under the APA, the agencies must publish all proposed new regulations in the Federal Register at least 30 days before they take effect, and they must provide a way for interested parties to comment, offer amendments, or object to the regulation. Some regulations require only publication and an opportunity for comments to become effective. Others require publication and one or more formal public hearings. The enabling legislation states which process is to be used in creating the regulations. Regulations requiring hearings can take several months to become final. New regulations or amendments to existing regulations are known as proposed rules. Notices of public hearings or requests for comments on proposed rules are published in the Federal Register, on the Web sites of the regulatory agencies and in many newspapers and other publications. The notices will include information on how to submit comments, or participate in public hearings on the proposed rule. Once a regulation takes effect, it becomes a final rule and is printed in the Federal Register, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and usually posted on the Web site of the regulatory agency. Type and Number of Federal Regulations In the Office of Management and Budgets (OMB) 2000 Report to Congress on the Costs and Benefits of Federal Regulations, OMB defines the three widely recognized categories of federal regulations as: social, economic, and process. Social regulations: seek  to benefit the public interest in one of two ways. It prohibits firms from producing products in certain ways or with certain characteristics that are harmful to public interests such as health, safety, and the environment. Examples would be OSHA’s rule prohibiting firms from allowing in the workplace more than one part per million of Benzene averaged over an eight hour day and the Department of Energy’s rule prohibiting firms from selling refrigerators that do not meet certain energy efficiency standards. Social regulation also requires firms to produce products in certain ways or with certain characteristics that are beneficial to these public interests. Examples are the Food and Drug Administration’s requirement that firms selling food products must provide a label with specified information on its package and Department of Transportation’s requirement that automobiles be equipped with approved airbags. Economic regulations: prohibit  firms from charging prices or entering or exiting lines of business that might cause harm to the economic interests of other firms or economic groups. Such regulations usually apply on an industry-wide basis (for example, agriculture, trucking, or communications). In the United States, this type of regulation at the federal level has often been administered by independent commissions such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) or the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). This type of regulation can cause economic loss from the higher prices and inefficient operations that often occur when the competition is restrained. Process Regulations: impose administrative or paperwork requirements such as income tax, immigration, social security, food stamps, or procurement forms. Most costs to businesses resulting from program administration, government procurement, and tax compliance efforts. Social and economic regulation may also impose paperwork costs due to disclosure requirements and enforcement needs. These costs generally appear in the cost for such rules. Procurement costs generally show up in the federal budget as greater fiscal expenditures. How Many Federal Regulations are There? According to the Office of the Federal Register, in 1998, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), the official listing of all regulations in effect, contained a total of 134,723 pages in 201 volumes that claimed 19 feet of shelf space. In 1970, the CFR totaled only 54,834 pages. The General Accountability Office (GAO) reports that in the four fiscal years from 1996 to 1999, a total of 15,286 new federal regulations went into effect. Of these, 222 were classified as major rules, each one having an annual effect on the economy of at least $100 million. While they call the process rulemaking, the regulatory agencies create and enforce rules that are truly laws, many with the potential to profoundly affect the lives and livelihoods of millions of Americans. What controls and oversight are placed on the regulatory agencies in creating federal regulations? Control of the Regulatory Process Federal regulations created by the regulatory agencies are subject to review by both the president and Congress under Executive Order 12866 and the Congressional Review Act. The Congressional Review Act (CRA) represents an attempt by Congress to re-establish some control over the agency rulemaking process. Executive Order 12866, issued on Sept. 30, 1993, by President Clinton, stipulates steps that must be followed by executive branch agencies before regulations issued by them are allowed to take effect. For all regulations, a detailed cost-benefit analysis must be performed. Regulations with an estimated cost of $100 million or more are designated major rules, and require completion of a more detailed Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA). The RIA must justify the cost of the new regulation and must be approved by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) before the regulation can take effect. Executive Order 12866 also requires all regulatory agencies to prepare and submit to OMB annual plans to establish regulatory priorities and improve coordination of the Administrations regulatory program. While some requirements of Executive Order 12866 apply only to executive branch agencies, all federal regulatory agencies fall under the controls of the Congressional Review Act. The Congressional Review Act (CRA) allows Congress 60 in-session days to review and possibly reject new federal regulations issued by the regulatory agencies. Under the CRA, the regulatory agencies are required to submit all new rules the leaders of both the House and Senate. In addition, the General Accounting Office (GAO) provides to those congressional committees related to the new regulation, a detailed report on each new major rule.

Trends and challenges in HR management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Trends and challenges in HR management - Essay Example Timely performance management can be used to identify, measure, and develop those individuals who could be the stars of a company (Campbell & Garfinkel 1996). A system of annual appraisals works with the idea that performance should be managed at the end of a give year but the more modern version of the process looks at performance from quarter to quarter which is the process used by many Fortune 500 companies (Grote, 2002). The annual appraisal system may put a considerable time gap between the time high performance was shown and the time when the reward for the performance is received. Kerr (1996) uses the example of giving food pellets to a mouse in a cage when a button is pushed by the mouse and says that if the reward comes a year after the button was pushed, it would be difficult to readily associate the two acts Of course, quarterly appraisals or other systems that have a shorter feedback loop as compared to annual appraisals may demand more time from managers as well as the employees if 360 performance evaluations have to be used. However, compared to an annual system of performance appraisals, more timely systems can give a company the means by which their strategic HR objectives, evaluation purposes and HR needs analysis could all be met (Bretz, Milkovich, & Read, 1992). Thus the annual appraisal system may come with the advantage of less time and money invested by the company; it certainly has its own set of drawbacks which make other systems more attractive. In essence, there are two primary approaches that can be taken towards an appraisal system i.e. an approach which focuses on the behavior of the employees and an approach that focuses on the results produced by the employee. However, in real world scenarios, the methods used by companies may take elements from both approaches to create a performance appraisal system for the employees. Amongst them the two more popular ones remain